How is Water Problem in Africa Being Addressed?

How is Water Problem in Africa Being Addressed?

There are several different groups and government bodies working to solve the shortage of water in Africa. Although there’s no perfect answer, and a long-term solution seems like it could be miles away still, this isn’t a problem that’s just flying under the radar. People around the world care about Africa’s water crisis, and there are a few different ways in which this problem is slowly but surely being addressed. Below are some of the most effective.

·     World Water Week – This is a week designed with the African water crisis in mind. Although the event doesn’t only focus on Africa, it takes center stage more often than not as an area of increased risk and greatest concern. During this week, which is held one or two times a year depending on need, world leaders from countries across the globe come together to try to solve water-related issues that affect a number of different locations. They brainstorm plans and enact new procedures that are intended to improve the quality of water around the world.

·        United Nations water recognition – In 2010, the United Nations officially recognized water as a basic human right. Although to some people it seems impossible to fathom that it would take that long for the UN to come to this conclusion, there were a lot of complicated politics involved in the statement. Basically, this recognition means that individual members of the UN must prioritize the available of fresh, clean drinking water above anything else other than the other basic human rights. This provision also included the right to simple improved sanitation conditions. Since this change, countries have been working harder than ever to try to improve the drinking water situation in Africa.

·   Charities – Nonprofit organizations and charities spend a lot of time, money, and energy focusing on Africa’s water crisis. These groups take it upon themselves to provide clean, fresh drinking water to the people who need it most. Many times, they travel to Africa to dig groundwater wells. They might also help the residents of rural communities install biofilters that can be used to clean up the surface water they’re already using. Each individual location is examined on a case-by-case basis to determine its specific needs. There are plenty of great charities out there, but unfortunately, there are some shady ones too.

·     Government donations – Some countries are more well-off than others, and they can afford to send some monetary donations on a large scale to African countries to help improve the water infrastructure and clean up surface water sources. Unfortunately, it can be difficult to see just how the money sent as part of these donations is really being used, and most of the time it just isn’t enough to get the continent on its feet in terms of water supply.

With many different plans in the works, it’s obvious that governments and organizations from most developed countries understand the need for clean water in Africa. However, there is always more that can be done, and it’s important to pay close attention to what your country is doing and the ways in which they could improve their involvement on a large scale.

How Bad is Africa’s Water Problem?

How Bad is Africa’s Water Problem?

It’s one thing to say there’s no water in Africa, but it’s another thing entirely to see the numbers and statistics that prove it. Before you dive into learning about the reasons behind the crisis going on with Africa’s water supply, take a moment to familiarize yourself with just how serious this problem really is. You might be shocked at some of the information you discover and some of the facts you read as you know more about just what’s going on in this critical situation.

• Around the world, 783 million people live every day without regular, dedicated access to improved water sources. Improved water in this situation means safe, clean drinking water that has been at least minimally treated to remove contaminants and pollutants. It doesn’t necessarily mean purified water.

• Of these people, 319 million of them live in Sub-Saharan Africa, which is the area of greatest concern on the continent. This part of Africa hosts the most critical rural communities that desperately need access to clean drinking water.

• 102 million people living in Sub-Saharan Africa rely solely on surface water to supply all the water they use for drinking, cooking, washing, and living. They have no way to access groundwater.

• 80% of the illnesses in developing countries around the world can be traced back to waterborne illnesses or a lack of improved sanitation conditions as a result of the inability to access regular clean water. Cholera is one of the most common of these illnesses in Africa, with typhoid, Dengue fever, and hepatitis on the list as well.

• In Sub-Saharan Africa, 695 million people live every day without access to improved sanitation. This means there’s no way for them to remove human and animal waste from their communities or from their water sources, and there’s nowhere for them to throw garbage and solid wastes. Many people don’t even have access to soap with which to wash their hands.

• There are very few toilets in Sub-Saharan Africa. Only around one in three people have regular access to toilets, with the rest having to urinate and defecate in out of the way places on the ground.

• Around the world, agriculture is the primary means of survival for 84% of people living without access to improved water conditions. This is equally true across Africa, where agriculture puts a huge strain on the water supply while simultaneously causing it to be even more polluted than it ordinarily would be.

• In infants and children under the age of five, one in five deaths worldwide can be traced back to diarrhea or dehydration as a result of a waterborne illness. The elderly are also more seriously affected by these types of illnesses.

Understanding the Reasons Behind the Water Crisis in Africa

Understanding the Reasons Behind the Water Crisis in Africa

it’s time to find out just what leads to this terrible situation. In this article, you’ll learn the top ten reasons why people in Africa are unable to regularly access clean drinking water. Some of this information might surprise you, and some of it might seem all too familiar. However, remember that these issues have been going on for a very long time, and as of yet, they don’t seem to be improving too significantly.

1. Africa is an arid continent. First and foremost, the weather and atmospheric conditions of this part of the world don’t lend themselves too well to regular supplies of fresh water. If this was the only problem, it wouldn’t be completely impossible to figure out a way to provide the people of Africa with clean water. However, it’s really only the framework for many more significant issues.

2. Many of the bodies of fresh water on the continent are controlled by more than one government. When this happens, the country or government upstream has much more of a say in what happens to the water than those downstream. This is most common with rivers, but sometimes large lakes see similar problems when their area bypasses legal boundaries.

3. All of the freshwater bodies in Africa are polluted or contaminated at least to some extent. While you can certainly argue that some contamination is present in almost every natural body of water, the problem is that there are also no treatment facilities available to help improve the quality of this water. It is polluted or contaminated and it remains that way until it’s ingested or otherwise used by humans.

4. The largest populations don’t live anywhere near the Congo River basin, where most of the available fresh water is located. 30% of the continent’s fresh water can be found in this part of Africa, but only 10% of the population live there. This water is most often used for agricultural purposes and never reaches the people in other parts of the continent who need it for drinking.

5. It’s very expensive and next to impossible to construct an infrastructure to bring fresh water from different regions to the people who need it the most. In developed countries, this wouldn’t be such a daunting task, but there just isn’t enough money in most African governments to even start such a costly endeavor. Therefore, the water remains in places where it isn’t as needed, and people elsewhere continue to go without.

6. Most of the population rely on surface water instead of groundwater for everything they do. This isn’t very safe because surface water is much easier to pollute than groundwater. Naturally, groundwater isn’t terribly contaminated, and it’s often easier to remove contaminants from it than from surface water. Also, when surface water is used up, there’s no real way to restore it. These freshwater sources dry up often, and as they start to recede, the risk of pollution becomes even greater.

7. There is a lack of education about the reality of water quality throughout the continent.Many people believe that any water that comes out of the ground, such as through a well, is safe to drink. It’s crucial that more education is provided so people across Africa understand how to tell when water is safe and when it should be avoided.

8. Women are often expected to bring water back for their whole families every day. A full jerry can of water usually weighs around 40 pounds, and some women make this trip more than once a day. Because of this, most women are uneducated and never hold down a job. This, in turn, leads to a worse economy because fewer people are working regularly. Young girls often drop out of school when they reach puberty because of a lack of sanitation and toilets, and they soon are trained as the new water carriers for the family.

9. The water table across the continent is receding every year. As more strain is put on surface water sources, the water table continues to dwindle. Pretty soon, even more of Africa’s countries will be desperately in need of fresh water that just isn’t there anymore. This is also a problem that’s facing the whole world.

10. The agricultural sector makes use of most of the freshwater sources in Africa.While this is true of most places around the world, it still hinders drinking water access in most African countries.

Remember that there are many other reasons that contribute to the lack of clean water in Africa, but these are some of the most common. Each individual community faces its own struggles, and it’s hard to say for sure what problems one might be dealing with as opposed to the next. If you’re curious about any specific country or city, you can often find breakdowns of water quality information provided by the World Health Organization and other similar groups.

Isotopes and modelling to support the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System Project

Isotopes and modelling to support the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System Project

• The Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System (NSAS) underlies the countries of Chad, Egypt, Libyan Arab Jamahiriya and Sudan, the total population of which is over 136 million. It is the world’s largest ‘fossil’ water aquifer system. This gigantic reservoir faces heavy demands from agriculture and for drinking water, and the amount drawn out could double in the next 50–100 years. Climate change is expected to add significant stress due to rising temperatures as well as changes in precipitation patterns, inland evaporation and salinization.

• Groundwater has been identified as the biggest and in some cases the only future source of water to meet growing demands and the development goals of each NSAS country, and evidence shows that massive volumes of groundwater are still potentially available. Since the 1960s, groundwater has been actively pumped out of the aquifer to support irrigation and water supply needs. Over-abstraction has already begun in some areas, which leads to significant drawdowns and can induce salinization. In the approximately 20 000 years since the last glacial period, the aquifer has been slowly draining; the system faces low recharge rates in some areas, while others have no recharge at all.

• The IAEA has been working with NSAS countries through national and regional projects to attempt to understand the aquifer’s complexities. The joint Nubian Aquifer Project, undertaken by the IAEA, the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), is groundbreaking and challenging. The goal is to establish equitable management of the NSAS for sustainable socioeconomic development and the protection of biodiversity and land resources.

• The IAEA, through the collaborative work of the nuclear applications and technical cooperation programmes, has been working with scientists in Chad, Egypt, Libyan Arab Jamahiriya and Sudan to develop a new and innovative 3-D model of the Nubian Aquifer. Three dimensional modelling permits accurate representation of water movement towards pumping areas and enables the mapping of water movement through the aquifer with the use of particle tracking (tracing the movement of individual water parcels through the modelled aquifer system). This strategy can be used to estimate the age of water in the aquifer at any time and location. Only with 3-D tracking can young and old water flow paths be seen.

• Recent advances in the analysis of krypton-81 (81Kr) have made it the most promising isotope for identifying the uniquely ancient water existing in the NSAS. The groundwater ages determined using 81Kr are more realistic than those based on other isotopes and they have been used to verify results of the Nubian Aquifer 3-D model. Krypton isotopes and modelling have made it possible to confirm the age of groundwater pumped from oases in the Western Desert of Egypt, which ranges from several hundred thousand to over a million years

• This project has been groundbreaking on many fronts: it is one of the first international transboundary aquifer water projects. Some of the most modern scientific techniques in existence are being implemented, with a focus on isotope hydrology. Many of the questions, activities and outputs will be new, and will require new management and legal structures on the part of the countries involved.

• The main technical component of the project, involving assessment, has already been completed, and the next phase, designing a framework for implementation, is being launched. The ultimate goal is to use the model to anticipate and prevent adverse transboundary effects associated with extracting aquifer water. The model can be used by Member States to design future cooperative monitoring programmes and to assist in interpreting data.

• At least as important as the technology has been the collaborative nature of this project. Scientists and staff of the water ministries in the four Nubian Aquifer countries participated in every stage of developing this model. All sides have agreed on a common language in terms of sharing and interpreting data and all are willing to adopt the model. The technical strategy was developed together
  
  

Water Crisis ( Wars Ahead )

Water Crisis ( Wars Ahead ) 

Water crisis

Water crisis is a situation where the available potable, unpolluted water within a region is less than that region's demand

Agricultural crisis

Although food security has been significantly increased in the past thirty years, water withdrawals for irrigation represent 66 % of the total withdrawals and up to 90 % in arid regions, the other 34 % being used by domestic households (10 %), industry (20 %), or evaporated from reservoirs (4 %).

As the per capita use increases due to changes in lifestyle and as population increases as well, the proportion of water for human use is increasing. This, coupled with spatial and temporal variations in water availability, means that the water to produce food for human consumption, industrial processes and all the other uses is becoming scarce.

Environmental crisis

It is all the more critical that increased water use by humans does not only reduce the amount of water available for industrial and agricultural development but has a profound effect on aquatic ecosystems and their dependent species. Environmental balances are disturbed and cannot play their regulating role anymore.

An increase in tensions

As the resource is becoming scarce, tensions among different users may intensify, both at the national and international level. Over 260 river basins are shared by two or more countries. In the absence of strong institutions and agreements, changes within a basin can lead to transboundary tensions. When major projects proceed without regional collaboration, they can become a point of conflicts, heightening regional instability. The Parana La Plata, the Aral Sea, the Jordan and the Danube may serve as examples. Due to the pressure on the Aral Sea, half of its superficy has disappeared, representing 2/3 of its volume. 36 000 km2 of marin grounds are now recovered by salt.

Water stress results from an imbalance between water use and water resources. The water stress indicator in this map measures the proportion of water withdrawal with respect to total renewable resources. It is a criticality ratio, which implies that water stress depends on the variability of resources. Water stress causes deterioration of fresh water resources in terms of quantity (aquifer over-exploitation, dry rivers, etc.) and quality (eutrophication, organic matter pollution, saline intrusion, etc.) The value of this criticality ratio that indicates high water stress is based on expert judgment and experience (Alcamo and others, 1999). It ranges between 20 % for basins with highly variable runoff and 60 % for temperate zone basins. In this map, we take an overall value of 40 % to indicate high water stress. We see that the situation is heterogeneous over the world.

The concept of Water Stress

Already there is more waste water generated and dispersed today than at any other time in the history of our planet: more than one out of six people lack access to safe drinking water, namely 1.1 billion people, and more than two out of six lack adequate sanitation, namely 2.6 billion people (Estimation for 2002, by the WHO/UNICEF JMP, 2004). 3900 children die every day from water borne diseases (WHO 2004). One must know that these figures represent only people with very poor conditions. In reality, these figures should be much higher.

While the world's population tripled in the 20th century, the use of renewable water resources has grown six-fold. Within the next fifty years, the world population will increase by another 40 to 50 %. This population growth - coupled with industrialization and urbanization - will result in an increasing demand for water and will have serious consequences on the environment

And in my point of view there will be a war for that matter.

Groundwater and global change (overview)

Groundwater and global change (Overview) 

Groundwater containing by far the largest volume of unfrozen fresh water on Earth is a hugely important natural resource. However, what the general public and most decision-makers know and understand about groundwater is usually very little. Today, knowledge of groundwater around the world, its functions and its use is increasing rapidly and views about the many ways in which groundwater systems are linked with other systems are changing accordingly.  

All around the world, groundwater is a resource in transition: its exploitation started booming only during the twentieth century (‘the silent revolution’). This boom has resulted in much greater benefits from groundwater than were ever enjoyed before, but it also triggered unprecedented changes in the state of groundwater systems. On a global level, the key issues that need to be addressed to ensure the sustainability of groundwater resources are the depletion of stored groundwater (dropping water levels) and groundwater pollution. Climate change will affect groundwater, but because of its characteristic buffer capacity, groundwater is more resilient to the effects of climate change than

surface water. Therefore, in areas where climate change is expected to cause water resources to become scarcer than they are at present, the role of groundwater in water supplies is likely to become more dominant. Their buffer capacity is one of the major strengths of groundwater systems. It allows long dry periods to be bridged (creating conditions for survival in semi-arid and arid regions) and generally reduces the risk of temporary water shortages. It also smooths out variations in water quality and causes a portion of the stored water (medium-deep to deep groundwater) to be relatively insusceptible to sudden disasters, thus making this portion suitable as an emergency water source.

In terms of making a contribution to securing water availability and groundwater-related environmental values, managing groundwater resources sustainably is of vital importance to society and the environment. Nevertheless, there are situations where sustainable exploitation of groundwater is unlikely to be achieved. Such situations include, for example, cases of tapped non-renewable groundwater resources, and many of the intensely exploited renewable groundwater systems in arid and semi-arid zones. Such cases should be identified and the population of the areas concerned should be prepared in good time to adapt effectively to a future when these resources will be exhausted.

Groundwater governance is complex and needs to be tailored to local conditions. In the case of transboundary aquifer systems, the international dimension adds complexity. International cooperation and a wide range of international initiatives produce significant added value. This cooperation is instrumental in enhancing and disseminating information about groundwater, in developing and promoting approaches and tools for its proper management, and in raising global commitment for action on priority issues, such as the millennium development goals (MDGs) and

sustainable development. Ensuring that groundwater is adequately incorporated into such global actions is a challenge for all groundwater professionals.

Aquifer Types

Aquifer Types

In more detail, there are three main classifications of aquifers, defined by their geometry and relationship to topography and the subsurface geology  The simple aquifer shown is termed an unconfined aquifer, because the aquifer formation extends essentially to the land surface. As a result, the aquifer is in pressure communication with the atmosphere. Unconfined aquifers are also known as water table aquifers, because the water table marks the top of the groundwater system.

A second common type of aquifer is a confined aquifer, which is isolated from pressure communication with overlying or underlying geologic formations – and with the land surface and atmosphere – by one or more confining layers or confining units. Confined aquifers differ from unconfined aquifers in two fundamental and important ways. First, confined aquifers are typically under considerable pressure, which may be derived from recharge at higher elevation or from the weight of the overlying rock and soil (known as the overburden). In some cases, the pressure is high enough that wells drilled into the aquifer are free-flowing. This condition requires that the water pressure in the aquifer is sufficient to drive water up the wellbore and above the land surface, and such wells are called artesian wells. Second, confined aquifers typically remain saturated over their entire thickness, even as water is removed by pumping wells. Water extracted from the aquifer comes only from the depressurization of the aquifer – a combination of depressurization and expansion of the water itself, and relaxation of the aquifer formation upon reduction in pressure .

The third main type of aquifer is a perched aquifer. Perched aquifers occur above discontinuous aquitards, which allow groundwater to “mound” above them. Thee aquifers are perched, in that they sit above the regional water table, and within the regional vadose zone (i.e. there is an unsaturated zone below the perched aquifer). The dimensions of perched aquifers are typically small (dictated by climate conditions and the size of aquitard layers), and the volume of water they contain is sensitive to climate conditions and therefore highly variable in time.

Well Development Techniques Part (4)

Well Development Techniques Part (4)

Well Jetting

Development by high velocity jetting may be done with either water or air. A jetting tool is attached to the lower end of the drill string and lowered to the bottom of the well screen. Rotation is controlled by the rotary rig. The jetting tool activated by either air or water forces high-pressure fluid out the nozzles of the tool very effectively, developing the formation. Because of the high pressures used damages to the well screens may result through improper use of jetting tools. However, jetting is seen as possibly the most highly effective development technique in terms of well yield after completion. The essential point to be made is that yield depends to a great extent on the development method used. Particles loosened by jetting tools may be later removed by pumping or bailing.

Well Development Techniques Part (3)

Well Development Techniques Part (3)

Air Development (air surging and pumping)

Several techniques for the air development of wells exist. However, all inject air into the borehole such that aerated slugs of water are lifted irregularly out the top of the well casing. Air pressure may be cycled on and off to create a surging action desirable in well development. Sufficient air pressure will result in a continuous flow of aerated water out the top of the well, removing sediment and fine particles from the borehole.

For small wells, air may be injected down the drill stem into the formation. For larger diameter wells a separate airline and eductor pipe are inserted into the borehole. The size of the eductor pipe and airline depend on air pressures and volume available as well as the casing diameter. Numerous sources caution drillers that under some conditions the use of air development approach can create aquifer air locks, in such cases a development with water is a wiser choice. Even so air as a development is probably the most popular and widely used method of well development today.

The type of discharge produced from a well during air development depends on the air volume available, total lift, submergence, and annular area. In practice, two different flow conditions can be recognized when air is used when air is used for water well development although other flow regimes may exist at much lower or higher velocities in smaller diameter pipes. The picture above provides an illustration of how multiphase flow (water and air) occurs in the casing during air development. The percent submergence, total lift, and capacity of the compressor will control the relative proportion of air and water for a particular well.

A. Introduction of a small volume or air under high head causes little change in the water level in the well. In this case, the air pressure available is just sufficient to overcome the head exerted by the water column.

B. As air volume increases, the column becomes partly aerated. Displacement of the water by the air causes the water column to rise in the casing. Drawdown does not change because no pumping is occurring.

C. Further increases in air volume cause aerated slugs of water to be lifted irregularly out the top of the casing. Between surges, the water level in the casing falls to the near the static level.

D. If enough air is available, the aerated water will continually flow out the top of the well. With average submergence and total lift, the volume of air versus water is about 10 to 1. Higher air volumes may increase the pumping rate somewhat, but still higher rates may actually reduce the flow rate because flow into the well is impeded by the excessive air volume.

Well Development Techniques Part (2)

Well Development Techniques Part (2)

Washing and Backwashing

Drillers working in different regions have, through experience, come to rely on those well development techniques producing the best results in their areas. However, new techniques should always be considered and tried with the goal of obtaining the cleanest well with the best possible yield.

Overpumping is the simplest method of removing fine particles from formations. The theory is that if a sand free yield can be achieved by overpumping then a sand free flow will be the result when pumping at the normally expected lower rate. However, overpumping by itself is not considered the best well development approach. Overpumping is considered a limited approach to well development because water flows in a single direction only.

Backwashing reverses water flow and helps in the dilution, agitation and removal of sediment, fine particles and drilling fluids. Backwashing requires the introduction of water back into the well. If water taken from the well is to be reintroduced for backwashing, care must be taken to allow the settling out of particles from the removed water before reintroduction. Even so backwashing should not be the final step in the well development process; rather it may be an effective beginning or intermediate step. Washing and backwashing reverses the flow in the borehole during development. This reversal causes the collapsing of bridges in the particles of the near well area. This is desirable because collapsing these bridges further removes fines from the near well creating a cleaner flowing well.

Mechanical Surging

The forcing of water into or out of a well screen by use of a plunger type action is called surging. Surging tools can be used by both cable drillers and rotary drillers and can be used in combination with other development methods. Surging promotes a repeated change of direction in the flow of water in the well screen area. This repeated change of direction can produce good porosity in the near-well zone.

Mechanical surging is the first of two methods of well development that removes particles and clogging materials by the force of water impinging on them. A development method such as mechanical surging is a vigorous development method not suited to all aquifer types. However, mechanical surging has less potential for aquifer damage if a continuous flow of water into the well from the aquifer is maintained. Mechanical plungers may be fitted with one-way valves allowing them to lift water and fine sand out of the hole. Solid plungers do exist but have more potential to damage the aquifer. The results of mechanical surging should be measured by checking the well yield periodically, every hour after the process begins. Surge plunger should be a good fit in the casing. The plunger may be attached directly to the drill stem or operated by hand depending on well depth

Mechanical surging does have potential to damage the aquifer and should be done with aquifer. The force exerted during mechanical surging depends on the length of the stroke and the vertical velocity of the surge block. Swabbing is another variation of surging. Swabbing does not depend on reversing flow into the well. Rather the swab is slowly lowered to the desired depth and then drawn upward. Swabbing creates a pressure differential below and above the swab during the up stroke. This differential creates a powerful action which draws fines from the near well area into the bore hole for removal.

Well Development Techniques Part (1)

Well Development Techniques Part (1)

Well development is the process of cleaning out the clay and silt introduced during the drilling process as well as the finer part of the aquifer directly around the well screen prior to putting the well into service:-

1. Increase the rate of water flow from the aquifer into the well.
2. Stabilize the aquifer to prevent sand pumping to produce better quality water
3. Increase service life of the water pump
4. Remove organic and inorganic materials.

Types of well development techniques:

1. Chemical
2. Washing and Backwashing
3. Mechanical Surging
4. Air Development
5. Jetting

Chemical

Chemical agents are introduced into the development zone as solvents. Their action is intended to dissolve or loosen any clogging or blocking materials to make them easier to remove. The action of chemicals may also enlarge aquifer pores and improve permeability. Chemical based well development techniques can be gentle or violent in their action.

All chemical agents introduced into potable wells should be approved for such use by local authorities. Chemical methods are often used in conjunction with other well development techniques. This is particularly true when additional action is needed to break up mud cakes or flush out gelled muds. The chemical solution is allowed to stand in contact with the aquifer for the recommended soak period. After the soak period the solution is pumped or bailed from the hole. While well drilling fluids will break down naturally, the breakdown process may be enhanced by the use of chemical agents. Once degraded, the drilling fluids are much more easily pumped from the aquifer. Other chemicals may be used to break down clay smears and gelled bentonite. Chlorine breaks down polymers.

A tremie pipe can be used in conjunction with packing devices to isolate the areas of the borehole to be subjected to chemical treatment. Chemical treatment can be used to break down drilling fluids, clays and polymers. Acids are often used for improving the yield in limestone, dolomite and other calcium carbonate formations